Medium Roof Transit Vans Global Analysis And Industry Insights

Table of Contents
- Market Overview and Demand Trends for Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Global Demand Drivers and Regional Variations
- Top 5 Industries and Sector-Specific Use Cases
- Comparative Sales Trends: Medium vs. High vs. Low Roof Vans (2019–2024)
- Technical Specifications and Design Features of Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Payload Capacity and Height Restrictions
- Structural Design Differences and Material Composition
- Interior Space Optimization for Cargo and Passenger Configurations
- Applications and Industry-Specific Uses of Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Top Five Industry Applications for Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Custom Modifications for Niche Markets
- Manufacturers and Model Comparisons of Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Leading Manufacturers and Their Flagship Models
- Fuel Efficiency, Maintenance Costs, and Resale Value Comparisons
- Aftermarket Support and Warranty Coverage
- Responsive Model Comparison Table
- Operational and Safety Considerations for Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Safety Features Unique to Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Maneuvering Challenges in Urban vs. Rural Environments
- Step-by-Step Pre-Trip Inspection for Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Future Trends and Innovations in Medium Roof Transit Vans
- Emerging Powertrain Technologies and Electrification
- Autonomous Driving and Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS)
- Sustainability Initiatives and Lightweight Materials
- Digital Tools and Fleet Management Innovations
- Adoption Timelines and Manufacturer Leadership
- FAQ
- What are some good medium roof transit vans for sale right now?
- How tall is a standard medium roof transit van?
- Where can I find medium roof transit vans for sale near me?
- What is the interior height of a medium roof transit van?
- What is a mid roof transit van?
- How tall is a mid roof transit van?
The medium roof transit van stands at the intersection of versatility and efficiency, serving as a critical asset across diverse industries worldwide. As urbanization accelerates and e-commerce demand surges, these vehicles bridge the gap between compact maneuverability and substantial cargo capacity, offering a balanced solution for businesses prioritizing both operational agility and cost-effectiveness.
From logistics and food delivery to specialized mobile services, the adoption of medium roof transit vans reflects shifting market dynamics where height restrictions, fuel efficiency, and adaptable configurations dictate fleet selections. This analysis explores the technical, economic, and operational dimensions shaping their dominance, while examining how manufacturers and industries leverage innovations to redefine productivity standards in an evolving transportation landscape.
Market Overview and Demand Trends for Medium Roof Transit Vans
The global demand for medium roof transit vans reflects evolving logistics, urbanization, and commercial service requirements, with regional disparities influenced by infrastructure, economic activity, and regulatory frameworks. These vans—typically ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 meters in height—bridge the gap between compact low-roof vans (e.g., delivery vehicles) and taller high-roof variants (e.g., passenger or cargo vans with standing room). Their versatility positions them as a dominant choice in sectors prioritizing space efficiency, fuel economy, and adaptability to mixed payloads (e.g., goods + personnel). Below, the analysis dissects demand drivers, sector-specific applications, and comparative sales trends over the past five years, supported by structured data to highlight market dynamics.
Global Demand Drivers and Regional Variations
The adoption of medium roof transit vans is primarily driven by urbanization, e-commerce expansion, and the rise of last-mile delivery networks, with regional adoption shaped by economic development, fuel costs, and local regulations. In North America and Europe, stricter emissions standards and congestion charges in cities have accelerated the shift toward electric and hybrid medium-roof vans, particularly in urban logistics. Meanwhile, emerging markets in Asia-Pacific and Latin America prioritize affordability and payload capacity, driving demand for diesel-powered or flex-fuel variants in sectors like agriculture and construction.
Key regional trends include:
Regional Adoption Insight: Medium roof vans outperform low-roof variants in regions with narrow urban streets (e.g., Europe) and high payload-to-height ratios (e.g., Africa, Southeast Asia), while high-roof vans dominate in long-haul or passenger transport markets.
Top 5 Industries and Sector-Specific Use Cases
Medium roof transit vans serve as the backbone of mixed-use commercial operations, where flexibility in cargo configuration and driver comfort are critical. The following sectors represent the highest adoption rates, with tailored applications addressing unique operational needs:-
E-Commerce and Last-Mile Delivery
Context: The explosive growth of online retail (projected 12% annual growth through 2027) has made medium-roof vans the preferred choice for urban and suburban deliveries, balancing cargo space with maneuverability.
Use Cases:- Package consolidation: Vans equipped with modular shelving (e.g., Amazon’s "Spherical" vans) to handle mixed parcel sizes.
- Temperature-controlled deliveries: Refrigerated medium-roof vans for grocery and pharmaceutical logistics (e.g., Walmart’s fleet upgrades).
- Micro-fulfillment centers: Vans used as mobile storage units for same-day delivery hubs in high-density areas.
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Food Service and Hospitality
Context: The restaurant delivery boom (global market valued at $140B in 2023) relies on medium-roof vans for efficient, multi-stop routes, with 30% of U.S. food delivery fleets now using these vehicles.
Use Cases:- Multi-compartment vans: Designed for hot/cold food storage (e.g., Domino’s Pizza’s "Pizza Pro" vans).
- Mobile kitchens: Convertible vans for catering and food trucks (e.g., "Cloud Kitchens" in Dubai).
- Beverage distribution: Insulated vans for craft breweries and coffee chains (e.g., Starbucks’ hybrid medium-roof fleet).
-
Healthcare and Medical Services
Context: The aging population and telemedicine growth have increased demand for mobile healthcare solutions, with medium-roof vans offering sterile environments and accessibility.
Use Cases:- Mobile clinics: Outfitted with examination tables and medical equipment (e.g., Project Hope’s global fleet).
- Pharmacy deliveries: Secure, climate-controlled vans for vaccine and medication transport (critical during COVID-19).
- Dental and veterinary services: Compact yet spacious layouts for equipment and patient transport (e.g., Petco Love’s mobile vet vans).
-
Construction and Trade Services
Context: The global construction market (valued at $14.6T in 2023) requires vehicles that can transport tools, materials, and personnel without sacrificing agility.
Use Cases:- Tool and equipment hauling: Vans with custom racks and lift gates (e.g., Home Depot’s "Pro Vans").
- Site mobility: Convertible cargo-passenger vans for supervisors and small crews (e.g., Skanska’s fleet in Scandinavia).
- Waste management: Compact yet high-capacity vans for urban recycling programs (e.g., NYC’s DSNY fleet).
-
Public Services and Government
Context: Municipalities and emergency services favor medium-roof vans for cost-efficiency, fuel savings, and adaptability to diverse public needs.
Use Cases:- Emergency response: Outfitted as mobile command centers or medical transport (e.g., FEMA’s disaster response vans).
- Library and education: Mobile libraries and classroom vans (e.g., "Bookmobiles" in rural U.S. states).
- Park and sanitation services: Compact yet durable vans for urban maintenance (e.g., London’s "Streetcare" vans).
Comparative Sales Trends: Medium vs. High vs. Low Roof Vans (2019–2024)
Over the past five years, medium roof transit vans have outpaced low-roof variants in growth while narrowing the gap with high-roof vans in select markets, driven by urbanization, electrification, and payload optimization. Below is a comparative analysis based on OEM sales data (Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Nissan, and Chinese brands like BYD and Geely):Key Insight: Medium roof vans now account for ~45% of global light commercial van sales, up from 38% in 2019, while high-roof variants (traditionally for passenger transport) have seen declining growth in mature markets.
| Vehicle Type | Primary Use Cases | Average Purchase Price (USD) | Annual Demand Growth (%) | Market Share (2024) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medium Roof Transit Van |
|
| Industry | Van Modification | Cost of Modification (USD) | ROI Timeline |
|---|---|---|---|
| E-Commerce Logistics |
Modular Divider System with RFID Tracking - Adjustable aluminum dividers for package separation. - Integrated RFID readers for inventory tracking. - LED lighting with motion sensors for night deliveries. |
$8,500–$12,000 | 12–18 months |
| Food Delivery |
Dual-Zone Refrigeration with Backup Power - -20°C freezer and +4°C fridge with independent compressors. - 48V lithium battery with 2-hour runtime for refrigeration. - Stainless steel interior for hygiene compliance. |
$15,000–$22,000 | 9–14 months |
| Mobile Healthcare |
Medical-Grade Workstation with Biocontainment - HEPA-filtered air system. - Foldable exam table and portable ultrasound unit. - Secure storage for pharmaceuticals (temperature-monitored). |
$25,000–$38,000 | 6–10 months |
| Landscaping/Construction |
Hydraulic Tool Lift with Dust Containment - 360° rotating platform for equipment access. - Integrated vacuum system for debris removal. - Reinforced flooring for heavy machinery. |
$18,000–$26,000 | 10–15 months |
| Waste Management |
Automated Compacting System with UV Sterilization - Hydraulic compactor reducing waste volume by 60%. - UV-C light for pathogen reduction. - Odor-neutralizing ventilation. |
$30,000–$45,000 | 8–12 months |
Note: ROI calculations account for reduced labor costs (e.g., faster unloading), extended equipment lifespan, and compliance benefits (e.g., food safety, emissions regulations). For example, a food delivery van with dual- The integration of modern safety technologies and adherence to legal height regulations are essential for fleet operators, while systematic pre-trip inspections—particularly of suspension systems and roof integrity—directly influence vehicle longevity and accident prevention. Below, the operational and safety considerations are structured to address these critical aspects, including technological advancements, environmental challenges, and procedural compliance. Dynamic Stability Enhancements Driver-Assistance Technologies Cargo Securement and Load Distribution Urban Environment Challenges Rural Environment Challenges 1. External Visual Inspection 2. Suspension and Steering System 3. Braking System Emerging technologies in medium roof transit vans are not merely incremental upgrades but represent paradigm shifts in vehicle design, energy efficiency, and connectivity. These innovations extend beyond powertrain electrification to encompass autonomous navigation, predictive maintenance, and AI-driven route optimization—all of which are poised to enhance productivity, reduce downtime, and lower total cost of ownership (TCO). Below, the focus is on key technological trajectories, sustainability initiatives, and digital tools reshaping the industry, alongside a structured analysis of adoption timelines and industry leaders at the forefront of these developments. Key advancements in electrification include: Challenges remain, particularly in cold-weather performance and battery degradation over time. However, Ford’s E-Transit and Volkswagen’s ID. Buzz have demonstrated that BEVs can achieve 200–300 miles per charge under real-world conditions, making them viable for most medium roof van applications. Current and near-future developments include: Regulatory hurdles remain, particularly in liability frameworks, but California’s autonomous vehicle testing laws and the EU’s AV Pilot Action Plan are accelerating adoption. By 2027–2030, Level 3 autonomy (conditional driving automation) is expected to be commercially viable for medium roof vans in geofenced urban zones. Key sustainability trends include: Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) tools, such as EcoVadis and UL’s Environmental Profiles, are now standard in van manufacturing to track CO₂ emissions from production to disposal, with Renault’s Kangoo E-Tech achieving a 30% lower carbon footprint than its ICE counterpart. Critical digital innovations include: 5G connectivity is accelerating these trends, with Qualcomm’s Snapdragon Digital Chassis enabling low-latency data exchange between vans and cloud platforms, essential for autonomous platooning and remote diagnostics. The medium roof transit van exemplifies a harmonization of form and function, where structural design, industry-specific applications, and emerging technologies converge to address contemporary logistical challenges. As sustainability and digital integration reshape fleet management, businesses adopting these vehicles gain not only operational efficiencies but also a strategic edge in navigating regulatory and environmental demands. The future of medium roof transit vans hinges on balancing tradition with innovation, ensuring they remain indispensable in an increasingly dynamic and interconnected supply chain ecosystem. Medium roof transit vans for sale include models like the Ford Transit (3.4m–5.2m), Ram ProMaster (4.3m–5.7m), and Mercedes-Benz Sprinter (5.3m–7.5m). Prices range from $30,000–$80,000+ depending on age, mileage, and configuration. Check listings on Autotrader, Cars.com, or dealerships for current options. A standard medium roof transit van typically has an interior height of 6 feet 2 inches (188 cm) at the wheelbase, tapering to 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm) at the rear doors. Exterior roof height is usually 7 feet 6 inches (229 cm) for models like the Ford Transit or Ram ProMaster. Search local listings on Autotrader, Cars.com, or Facebook Marketplace for dealerships and private sellers. Visit transit van specialists like TransitVan.com or VanDepot.com for nearby inventory. Contact local commercial vehicle dealers or rental companies for used options. The interior height of a medium roof transit van (e.g., Ford Transit, Ram ProMaster) is 6 feet 2 inches (188 cm) at the wheelbase and 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm) at the rear doors. High-roof versions add 6–8 inches of extra clearance. A mid roof transit van (e.g., Ford Transit Mid Roof, Ram ProMaster Mid Roof) has a shorter roof height than high-roof models but taller than standard cargo vans. It offers 6 feet (183 cm) interior height at the wheelbase, balancing cargo space and maneuverability. A mid roof transit van has an interior height of 6 feet (183 cm) at the wheelbase and 5 feet 8 inches (173 cm) at the rear. Exterior roof height is typically 7 feet (213 cm), making it taller than standard cargo vans but shorter than high-roof versions.
Manufacturers and Model Comparisons of Medium Roof Transit Vans
Medium roof transit vans represent a critical segment in the commercial vehicle market, balancing payload capacity, maneuverability, and operational efficiency. Leading manufacturers specialize in models tailored to urban logistics, delivery services, and light-duty transportation, each offering distinct advantages in fuel efficiency, maintenance costs, and aftermarket support. Comparative analysis of these models helps fleet operators and businesses select vehicles optimized for long-term cost-effectiveness and performance.
Leading Manufacturers and Their Flagship Models
The global market for medium roof transit vans is dominated by manufacturers with strong regional presences and specialized product lines. Key players include Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles, RAM (Stellantis), and Nissan, each targeting specific market segments such as city delivery fleets, courier services, and small-scale logistics operations.
The Transit Custom, particularly the medium roof variant, is widely adopted for its versatility and compact dimensions. Flagship models like the Transit Custom 150 L2H2 cater to urban environments, while extended-wheelbase versions support larger payloads. Ford’s global distribution network ensures availability across North America, Europe, and Asia, with strong aftermarket support in regions like the U.S. and UK.
The Sprinter, available in medium roof configurations, is a premium choice for high-end logistics and specialized applications. Models such as the Sprinter 4x2 and Sprinter 4x4 emphasize durability and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS). Mercedes-Benz targets commercial fleets, rental services, and luxury mobility solutions, with a strong presence in Europe and North America.
Volkswagen’s Transporter, particularly the T6.1 medium roof, is favored for its balance of fuel efficiency and payload capacity. The brand’s focus on modular interiors and eco-friendly powertrains (including diesel and mild-hybrid options) aligns with sustainability-driven fleets. Volkswagen’s dominance in Europe extends to emerging markets in Latin America and Africa.
The ProMaster, offered exclusively in North America, stands out for its high-roof design and spacious cargo area. Models like the ProMaster 3500 target trade professionals, contractors, and delivery services. RAM’s integration with Stellantis’ supply chain ensures competitive pricing and extensive dealer networks in the U.S. and Canada.
The NV350, including the NV350 Van variant, is a cost-effective solution for small businesses and rural logistics. Nissan prioritizes affordability and low maintenance costs, making it popular in Southeast Asia, Australia, and Latin America. The brand’s focus on diesel and gasoline engines caters to regions with varying fuel infrastructure.Fuel Efficiency, Maintenance Costs, and Resale Value Comparisons
Fuel efficiency and total cost of ownership (TCO) are critical factors in selecting a medium roof transit van. Diesel engines traditionally offer better fuel economy and torque for payload-heavy applications, while gasoline and hybrid models provide advantages in urban settings with lower emissions regulations.
Diesel-powered models like the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter (4.8L OM654 V8) achieve up to 12–15 L/100 km in mixed driving, while gasoline variants (e.g., Ford Transit Custom 2.0L EcoBlue) range from 8–10 L/100 km. Hybrid options, such as the Volkswagen Transporter T6.1 eHybrid, reduce consumption by 20–30% in city cycles but may incur higher upfront costs.
Diesel engines dominate in long-haul logistics, whereas gasoline and hybrid models excel in short-distance urban routes.
Premium brands like Mercedes-Benz and RAM incur higher maintenance expenses due to specialized parts and labor. For example:
Aftermarket support varies significantly; European brands rely on OEM-certified parts, while Asian manufacturers often leverage local workshops for reduced costs.
Resale depreciation is influenced by brand reputation, market demand, and model popularity. Data from CAP HPI (2023) indicates:
Fleet operators prioritizing long-term asset management often favor brands with stronger resale markets, such as Ford or Mercedes-Benz.Aftermarket Support and Warranty Coverage
Aftermarket support and warranty coverage directly impact long-term ownership costs. Manufacturers with extensive dealer networks and global service agreements minimize downtime, while warranty terms influence repair cost allocations.
Standard warranty periods for medium roof transit vans typically range from 3 to 5 years, with variations by region and powertrain. Key examples include:
Extended warranties (e.g., Ford’s Extended Service Plan) can add 10–20% to the vehicle’s cost but reduce out-of-pocket repair expenses by 30–50% over 5 years.
European manufacturers benefit from OEM-approved parts networks, ensuring compatibility and reducing repair times. In contrast, Asian brands like Nissan rely on localized supply chains, which may offer lower-cost alternatives but vary in quality consistency.
Fleet operators in regions with limited dealer coverage (e.g., Southeast Asia) often opt for models with modular designs to simplify repairs.
A 2023 study by J.D. Power compared 5-year ownership costs for a medium roof transit van, accounting for fuel, maintenance, insurance, and depreciation:
Diesel models generally incur 15–25% lower fuel expenses than gasoline counterparts over 5 years, offsetting higher purchase prices.Responsive Model Comparison Table
The following table summarizes key attributes of flagship medium roof transit van models, including fuel type, warranty coverage, and estimated annual maintenance costs. Data is based on 2023–2024 model years and regional averages.
Operational and Safety Considerations for Medium Roof Transit Vans
Medium roof transit vans combine practicality with enhanced cargo capacity, but their operational dynamics and safety requirements differ significantly from standard vans due to their taller profile and extended wheelbase. Safety features such as advanced stability control systems, real-time blind-spot monitoring, and reinforced cargo securement mechanisms are critical for mitigating risks associated with higher centers of gravity and broader maneuvering challenges. Meanwhile, urban and rural environments impose distinct constraints—height restrictions in city centers, narrow parking spaces, and uneven rural roads demand specialized driving techniques and pre-trip inspection protocols to ensure compliance and operational efficiency.
Safety Features Unique to Medium Roof Transit Vans
Medium roof transit vans incorporate specialized safety systems designed to counteract the inherent risks posed by their elevated cargo area and extended length. These features are categorized into dynamic stability enhancements, driver-assistance technologies, and cargo management solutions, each tailored to address specific operational hazards.
The taller roof height increases the risk of rollover in high-speed maneuvers or sudden braking, necessitating advanced electronic stability control (ESC) systems. Modern medium roof vans integrate adaptive ESC with rollover mitigation algorithms that adjust torque distribution and braking force in real time. For example, Mercedes-Benz Sprinter and Ford Transit Custom models employ ESP with roll stability control, which can reduce lateral acceleration by up to 30% during emergency swerves. Additionally, height-adaptive air suspension systems (e.g., in the Volkswagen Crafter) dynamically adjust ride height to optimize ground clearance in off-road conditions while maintaining stability on highways.
Blind-spot monitoring (BSM) and lane-keeping assist (LKA) are standard in premium medium roof vans to compensate for the vehicle’s wider turning radius and extended blind spots. Systems like Ford’s Co-Pilot360 or Daimler’s Active Lane Assist use radar and camera sensors to alert drivers of approaching vehicles in adjacent lanes or during lane changes. Some models, such as the Renault Master, feature 360-degree cameras with overhead views to assist in tight parking maneuvers, reducing the risk of collisions in urban environments. Automatic emergency braking (AEB) with pedestrian detection is another critical feature, particularly in city logistics where sudden stops are common.
The higher cargo area of medium roof vans requires reinforced tie-down points and adjustable floor loading systems to prevent shifting loads. Manufacturers such as Volvo FE and MAN TGE offer modular cargo compartments with integrated anti-slip mats and height-adjustable side walls to secure pallets or bulk goods. Additionally, load-monitoring sensors (e.g., in the Scania Citywide) provide real-time alerts if cargo exceeds weight limits, preventing suspension damage or loss of control. For refrigerated vans, temperature-controlled securement systems ensure perishable goods remain stable during transit.
Maneuvering Challenges in Urban vs. Rural Environments
The operational dynamics of medium roof transit vans vary significantly between urban and rural settings, with each environment presenting unique constraints that influence routing, parking, and driving techniques.
Cities impose height restrictions, narrow streets, and limited parking spaces, requiring drivers to navigate with precision. Key challenges include:
Rural roads present uneven surfaces, steep inclines, and limited infrastructure, which can strain suspension systems and reduce handling precision. Key considerations include:
Step-by-Step Pre-Trip Inspection for Medium Roof Transit Vans
A comprehensive pre-trip inspection is critical for medium roof transit vans to prevent mechanical failures, ensure cargo safety, and comply with regulatory standards. The following procedure emphasizes suspension integrity, roof structural checks, and load securement verification, with a focus on components unique to medium roof models.
Begin with a 360-degree walkaround, paying special attention to:
Medium roof vans rely on heavy-duty suspension to handle increased payloads. Perform the following checks:
Given the increased stopping distance of medium roof vans, braking
Future Trends and Innovations in Medium Roof Transit Vans
The medium roof transit van sector is undergoing a transformative shift driven by technological advancements, sustainability mandates, and evolving fleet management demands. Over the next decade, electric powertrains, autonomous driving capabilities, lightweight materials, and digital integration will redefine operational efficiency, environmental compliance, and cost structures. Manufacturers are increasingly prioritizing these innovations to align with global regulatory frameworks, such as the EU’s 2035 CO₂ emissions targets and the U.S. EPA’s Phase 3 standards, while also responding to consumer and business preferences for greener, smarter logistics solutions.
Emerging Powertrain Technologies and Electrification
The transition from internal combustion engines (ICE) to electric and hybrid powertrains is the most immediate and impactful trend in medium roof transit vans. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are gaining traction due to advancements in battery chemistry, charging infrastructure, and government incentives. For medium-duty vans, which typically operate in urban and suburban environments with predictable routes, BEVs offer a compelling solution, particularly for last-mile delivery and parcel services.
Autonomous Driving and Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS)
Autonomous driving technologies, though still in early stages for commercial vans, are being developed to address labor shortages, improve safety, and reduce operational costs. Medium roof transit vans—ideal for structured routes—are prime candidates for Level 2 to Level 4 autonomy, where human intervention is minimal or nonexistent in specific conditions.
Sustainability Initiatives and Lightweight Materials
Sustainability in medium roof transit vans extends beyond electrification to encompass material innovation, circular economy practices, and lifecycle emissions reduction. Lightweighting is a critical strategy, as every 100 kg reduction in vehicle weight can improve fuel efficiency by 6–8% (or extend electric range by 10–15 miles).
Digital Tools and Fleet Management Innovations
The integration of telematics, IoT sensors, and AI analytics is revolutionizing fleet management for medium roof transit vans. These tools enable predictive maintenance, real-time monitoring, and data-driven decision-making, significantly improving uptime and reducing operational costs.
Adoption Timelines and Manufacturer Leadership
The pace of innovation varies by region and application, with North America and Europe leading adoption due to stricter emissions regulations and higher fleet electrification incentives. Below is a structured table outlining key innovations, their cost impacts, adoption timelines, and leading manufacturers driving these changes.
Innovation
Expected Impact on Costs
Adoption Timeline
Key Manufacturers Testing/Deploying
Solid-State Batteries (BEVs)
<FAQ
What are some good medium roof transit vans for sale right now?
How tall is a standard medium roof transit van?
Where can I find medium roof transit vans for sale near me?
What is the interior height of a medium roof transit van?
What is a mid roof transit van?
How tall is a mid roof transit van?


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